Journal of Immunology 173(4):27152724, 2004. Update on pancreatic cancer and alcohol-associated risk. Heavy alcohol consumption, in contrast, has several detrimental effects resulting in impaired control of blood glucose levels. Role of microglia in ethanols apoptotic action on hypothalamic neuronal cells in primary cultures. ; Fernandez-Sola, J.; Fatjo, F.; et al. Central Nervous System (CNS) Alcohol slows down this system, which is made up of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. Researchers have found that alcohol consumption also increases the body's production of cortisol, not only while the person is drinking, but also later when the drinker is withdrawing from the effects of intoxication. In the short-term, cortisol can increase blood pressure, focus alertness and attention, but in the longer term can adversely impact body functions such as bone growth, digestion, reproduction, and wound repair. In addition, alcohol influences the release and actions of the pituitary hormone prolactin (outlined in the sidebar Alcohol and Prolactin) as well as of hormones produced and released in other tissues, such as the endocrine pancreas and the adipose tissue (reviewed in the sidebar Alcohol and Other Endocrine Tissues). Effects of growth hormone on glucose, lipid, and protein metabolism in human subjects. ; and Ylikahri, R. Effect of ethanol on serum concentrations of somatomedin C and the growth hormone (GH) secretion stimulated by the releasing hormone (GHRH). Endocrinology 131(6):26032608, 1992. Some studies have shown that moderate alcohol consumption improves peripheral insulin sensitivity without affecting insulin secretion from pancreatic -cells (Avogaro et al. And while all alcohol affects the liver's ability to get rid of excess estrogen, beer contains phytoestrogensplant-derived estrogens that dampen virility and fertility. In men with AUD and cirrhosis, a decrease in IGF-1 bioavailability as a result of liver disease contributes at least in part to the elevated circulating levels of estradiol and estrone (Martinez-Riera et al. Tropic hormones indirectly affect target cells by first stimulating other endocrine glands. Kathleen Esposito is a certified addictions counselor in the Pacific Northwest. ; Mendelson, J.H. Alcohol reaches your brain in only five minutes, and starts to affect you within 10 minutes. Abnormal glucose tolerance and alcohol consumption in three populations at high risk of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. According to the . Its hormones control metabolism and energy levels, electrolyte balance, growth and development, and reproduction. ; Chiappa, S.A.; Fink, G.; and Sherwood, N.M. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone surge in pro-oestrous rats. PMID: 6665132, Castilla-Cortazar, I.; Quiroga J.; and Prieto, J. Insulin-like growth factor-I, liver function, and hypogonadism in rats with experimentally induced cirrhosis. It can affect how quickly food moves through the body, which can cause either diarrhea or constipation. Finding the right treatment plan and resources is key to avoiding long-standing damage from overdrinking. As an example, thyroid-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus . PMID: 3001809, Seki, M.; Yoshida, K.; and Okamura, Y. In men, they are responsible for: In women, hormones perform many functions, including: Chronic drinking can interfere with all of these reproductive functions. These effects were associated with reductions in total and free T3 levels, although the concentrations of total and free T4 as well as of TSH remained unchanged (Hegedus et al. 1986). ; Koenig, H.N. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 25(1): 8388, 2001. The researchers noted that testosterone, estrogen, and glucocorticoids interact with each. 1991). One of the ways in which alcohol can damage the hippocampus is by disrupting neurogenesis. PMID: 19481567, Rowe, P.H. Endocrinology 146(1):156163, 2005. Neurons are the fundamental reason for our body's responses as they send and receive messages from our brains to other parts of our body on how we should behave or react. Alcohol is transported throughout a body in the bloodstream and spreads to every organ through the body's water. ; Roberts, M.C. Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology 21(Suppl 3):S69S75, 2006. Life Sciences 93(21):778782, 2013. Increased adipose tissue expression of tumor necrosis factor-alpha in human obesity and insulin resistance. PMID: 15913658, Villarroya, J.; Cereijo, R.; and Villarroya, F. An endocrine role for brown adipose tissue? People with alcohol addiction risk getting head, neck, liver, esophageal, breast, or colorectal cancer.. Lastly, your bodys overall functions and health are negatively affected by consuming too much alcohol. 2015). Research has shown that alcohol can activate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which is likely the reason for the relaxing effect of alcohol. The size of a pea, this master endocrine gland releases hormones into the bloodstream to reach a wide variety of targets that can affect growth, metabolism, reproduction, and more. Neuroscience Letters 227(1):2528, 1997. Most significantly, heavy alcohol use reduces the thyroid hormones T4 and T3and blunts the thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) response to thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) from the hypothalamus gland. IUBMB Life 60(12):790797, 2008. 2000). 1993; Stoop 2014). Alcohol may induce inflammation through both direct and indirect mechanisms. American Journal of Psychiatry 148(11):15861588, 1991. Maternal alcohol use before or during lactation can interfere with the proper function of both prolactin and oxytocin (Heil and Subramanian 1998). A review. PMID: 22935962, Calissendorff, J.; Brismar, K., and Rojdmark, S. Is decreased leptin secretion after alcohol ingestion catecholamine-mediated? Thats why its fairly obvious to tell the difference between someone who has had three drinks and someone who has had twelve. Influence of ethanol on growth hormone secretion in adult and prepubertal female rats. ; Pritchard, M.T. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 27(6):975980, 2003. Continued meth abuse can severely damage dopamine and serotonin neurons, affecting how a person feels, acts and thinks. The alcohol metabolite acetaldehyde can disrupt testosterone production by inhibiting protein kinase C, a key enzyme in testosterone synthesis (Chiao and Van Thiel 1983). In addition, WAT can coordinate numerous important biological processes through its various adipokines, such as food intake and body weight (leptin), glucose homeostasis (adiponectin and resistin), lipid metabolism, pro- and anti-inflammatory functions (tumor necrosis factor alpha [TNF] and interleukin-6 [IL-6]), as well as reproductive functions (Campfield et al. ; Simonyl, A.; and Rudeen, P.K. During this stage, the disorder can be reversed with thiamine supplementation. PMID: 15706759, Avogaro, A.; Watanabe, R.M. Endocrine Reviews 22(1):111151, 2001. The endocrine system includes the hypothalamicpituitaryadrenal axis, the hypothalamicpituitarygonadal axis, the hypothalamicpituitarythyroid axis, the hypothalamicpituitarygrowth hormone/insulin-like growth factor-1 axis, and the hypothalamicposterior pituitary axis, as well as other sources of hormones, such as the endocrine pancreas and endocrine adipose tissue. Chronic alcohol ingestion decreases pituitary-thyroid axis measures in Fischer-344 rats. There are promising preclinical animal studies of DBS for alcohol consumption as well as some initial human clinical studies that have shown some promise . Two of these permanent problems include Wernickes Korsakoff Syndrome and Hepatic Encephalopathy. Ethanol and estradiol modulate alternative splicing of dopamine D2 receptor messenger RNA and abolish the inhibitory action of bromocriptine on prolactin release from the pituitary gland. Journal of Neuroendocrinology 8(4):243258, 1996. PMID: 6443069, Gangisetty, O.; Wynne, O.; Jabbar, S.; et al. 1983; Rowe et al. Moreover, intravenous injection of 10 mg diazepam, an allosteric modulator of GABA receptor function, had no effect on GH secretion in men with AUD who had maintained a 5-week abstinence, whereas control subjects without AUD showed a striking increase of GH secretion in response to diazepam (Vescovi and Coiro 1999). Alcohol can interfere with the operation of the hormone system and cause serious medical consequences. In premenopausal women, chronic heavy drinking contributes to reproductive disorders, including:. When the hormone system is working properly, the exact amount of hormone is released at exactly the right time and the tissues of the body accurately respond to those messages. Taken together, these findings clearly show that the activities of the HPG and GH/IGF-1 axes during puberty are closely interconnected. In fact there is a famous story about a patient H.M. whose hippocampus was actually removed surgically in an effort to relieve him of uncontrollable seizures. The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests. To prevent either stage from happening, those who abuse alcohol need to monitor their vitamin B intake. PMID: 18034699, Seilicovich, A.; Rubio, M.; Duvilanski, B.; et al. Staying connected in a non-invasive way can help your brain heal over time before something permanently damaging takes place. Effects of alcoholism cause this region to shrink and reduce in mass while lowering the number of neurons within the prefrontal cortex. PMID: 10857962, Welsch, T.; Kleeff, J.; Seitz, H. K.; et al. The inhibitory action of hypothalamic dopamine on pituitary prolactin secretion is mediated by the dopamine G-proteincoupled D2 receptors (D2R), which interact with regulatory molecules called G-proteins and specifically a subtype called adenylyl-cyclaseinhibitory Gi/Go (Ben-Jonathan et al. The investigators suggested that alcohol exposure led to a downregulation and inactivation of the enzyme glucokinase, which acts as a -cell sensor for blood glucose levels. For example, several studies suggest that the number of TRH receptors in the pituitary is reduced as a result of increased TRH secretion (Aoun et al. Chronic alcohol consumption also is a risk factor for the development of pancreatic cancer, with moderate to heavy consumption increasing the risk both alone and in combination with other risk factors, such as tobacco and obesity (de Menezes et al. ; Nock, B., Truong, R.; and Cicero, T. J. Nitric oxide control of steroidogenesis: Endocrine effects of NG-nitro-L-arginine and comparisons to alcohol. Chronic ethanol consumption-induced pancreatic -cell dysfunction and apoptosis through glucokinase nitration and its down-regulation. PMID: 6347266, Dees, W.L. 1 C-peptide is a chain of 31 amino acids that during insulin synthesis connects the two parts, or chains, of the insulin molecule in a precursor molecule. This bidirectional interaction between the HPA axis and immune function is essential for survival and for maintaining the bodys homeostasis. Thus, prolactin secretion is controlled by a short-loop inhibitory feedback effect, whereby elevated prolactin levels in the circulation stimulate the hypothalamus to release dopamine, which then acts on the pituitary to stop further prolactin release. The brain is not the only part of your body that is affected by drinking alcohol. Developmental Psychobiology 48(2):146161, 2006. ; Walker, C.H. For example, alcohol metabolism results in the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cell damage that can trigger the production of proinflammatory cytokines (Haorah et al. Rebuilding or strengthening relationships reminds you how loved and supported you are and helps give you a reason to continue to aim for sobriety. PMID: 25456265, Wei, M.; Gibbons, L.W. In fact, WAT may be the largest endocrine organ in mammals and can be found in individual pads in different locations throughout the body, both near other organs (i.e., viscerally) and under the skin (i.e., subcutaneously). 1998) and rodents (Emanuele et al. It happens to people who are long-term alcohol-dependent because alcohol blocks the absorption of thiamine.. The under age drinking consequences are very varied and can lead to difficulties in maintaining balance, making poor decisions, having slurred speech, developing alcohol-induced depression, etc. Therefore, some problems like bloating, gassiness, or diarrhea can occur. Frontiers of Hormone Research 38:3241, 2010. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 26(9):14201429, 2002. Other studies (Mendelson et al. PMID: 25433251, Barnes, P.J. PMID: 8373011, Vescovi, P.P., and Coiro, V. Effect of diazepam on growth hormone secretion in abstinent alcoholic men. At the same time, the AVP binds to V1b receptors, potentiating the effects of CRF on ACTH production in the anterior pituitary. British Journal of Nutrition 107(6):850857, 2012. Animal Reproduction Science 107(34):179196, 2008. Diabetologia 49(4):697705, 2006. The cause of the alcoholic gait is brain damage called alcoholic cerebellar ataxia. 1990; Wei et al. ; Hall, M.; Sollers, J.J. 3rd; and Fischer, J.E. The body's blood sugar levels are controlled by insulin and glucagon, hormones secreted by the pancreas. Alcohol can induce a wide spectrum of effects on the central nervous system. With higher consumption, specifically for those who struggle with alcoholism, your brain and body slowly start needing more and more to achieve the desired effects. There are two isoforms of the D2R, a long (D2L) and a short (D2S) isoform.1 Chronic exposure to ethanol increases the expression of prolactin mRNA and of D2L mRNA but decreases expression of D2S both in the pituitary of Fischer-344 rats and in primary cultures of anterior pituitary cells (Oomizu et al. In these analyses, the HPA response after several weeks of daily 30-minute self-administration of alcohol was highest in the animals with the lowest level of consumption (<0.2 mg/kg/session) and most blunted in animals with the highest level of consumption (~1.0 mg/kg/session). You'll reduce your risk of stroke and nerve damage. Alcohol-induced hyperprolactinemia also was evident in postmenopausal women (Gavaler 1994) and in men with AUD (Soyka et al. PMID: 15100697, Zoeller, R.T.; Fletcher, D.L. ROS produced during alcohol metabolism may cause cell damage in the testes (Emanuele et al. ; Mitchell, T.L. Augment insulin secretion, causing temporary hypoglycemia. Regulation of testicular function in the stallion: An intricate network of endocrine, paracrine and autocrine systems. ; et al. In turn, messages travel more slowly . Reproductive Neuroendocrinology of Aging and Drug Abuse. 2000). 1998) by alcohol exposure. Another adipokine is adiponectin, which is produced and secreted exclusively by WAT and has antidiabetogenic and anti-inflammatory effects. Chronic ethanol treatment reduces the responsiveness of the hypothalamicpituitarythyroid axis to central stimulation. Something went wrong while submitting the form. Does LHRH meet the criteria for a hypothalamic releasing factor? PMID: 3133465, Oomizu, S.; Boyadjieva, N.; and Sarkar, D.K. It has been speculated that dysregulations of HPA axis function caused by chronic alcohol exposure mediates these effects on the immune system (figure 1). PMID: 19545588, Hermann, D.; Heinz, A.; and Mann, K. Dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis in alcoholism. 2013). Zimmermann, U.; Spring, K.; Kunz-Ebrecht, S.R. Neuropsychopharmacology 29(6): 11561165, 2004. Studies have shown that alcohol intake consistently induces an increase in estradiol levels in humans (Mendelson and Mello 1988; Muti et al. Acute alcohol intake decreased the circulating levels of LH and testosterone as a result of diminished release of hypothalamic LHRH (Cicero et al. ; and Symmes, S.K. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. Research shows that genes are responsible for about half of the risk for AUD. This may make it harder to control emotions, and some people may even injure themselves and not realize it until the next day. Alcohol also can activate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (Rivier 1996), and the hormones involved in the stimulation of this stress axis can suppress LH secretion (Kinsey-Jones et al. PMID: 1734158, Adinoff, B.; Nemeroff, C.B. Growth Hormone & IGF Research 14(Suppl. Thus, BAT was shown to release factors such as IGF-1, fibroblast growth factor-2, IL-1, IL-6, bone morphogenetic protein-8b, and lipocalin prostaglandin D synthase that primarily have autocrine or paracrine actions (Villarroya et al. PMID: 9013731, Coelho, M.; Oliveira, T.; and Fernandes, R. Biochemistry of adipose tissue: An endocrine organ. By Buddy T Note that liver failure has to occur first before this disorder becomes symptomatic. In its role as a peripheral hormone, oxytocin is released into the circulation from the posterior pituitary, enhancing uterine contractions during labor and, together with prolactin, enhancing milk release during lactation (Leng et al. Sperm development and therefore fertility, Development of secondary sexual characteristics, Impaired sexual and reproductive functions, Adversely affect bone metabolism via nutritional deficiencies, Altering reproductive hormones, affecting bone metabolism, Causing PTH deficiency and increase calcium excretion, Inhibiting activity of bone-forming cells, Limiting adequate absorption of dietary calcium. Metabolism 47(10): 12691273, 1998. Considerable evidence indicates that alcohol abuse results in clinical abnormalities of one of the bodys most important systems, the endocrine system. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 31(12):21012105, 2007. Life Sciences 77(15): 18131824, 2005. The brain consists of several sections controlling different aspects of what makes you human. In addition, ethanol exposure increased the mRNA levels for several methylating enzymes and enzymes called histone deacetylases that modify the proteins (i.e., histones) around which the DNA is wound, which also interfere with transcription (Gangisetty et al. The hypothalamus is a part of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis and plays a significant part in adrenal insufficiency. Consuming one makes your hypothalamus signal that you're craving the other. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 22(5 Suppl. ; Mendelson, J.H. Both matters add up to complete the total of the central nervous system. ; Floreani, N.; et al. Alcohol and Alcoholism 30(5):661667, 1995. Research proves alcohol has a clear effect on the brain. For example, acute ethanol administration increased serum prolactin levels in male (Seilicovich et al. 2006). Endocrinology 148(6):28282834, 2007. John C. Umhau, MD, MPH, CPE is board-certified in addiction medicine and preventative medicine. Binge drinking or addiction can grow out of this. After a couple of years of sobriety, this functioning returns to normal.. Alcohol-related pancreatic damage: Mechanisms and treatment. Our website is not intended to be a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. POMC can be cleaved into several smaller peptides, including ACTH; -endorphin (BEP); and three similar peptides called -, -, and -melanocyte stimulating hormones. Studies in nonhuman primates and laboratory animals have confirmed an alcohol-induced hyperprolactinemia. ; Verma, P.; and Weinberg, J. Prenatal alcohol exposure: Fetal programming and later life vulnerability to stress, depression and anxiety disorders. American Journal of Physiology: Endocrinology and Metabolism 305(5): E567E572, 2013. ; Ribeiro, M.O. Intranasal oxytocin blocks alcohol withdrawal in human subjects. ; and Skupny, A. ; et al. Chronic ethanol-induced insulin resistance is associated with macrophage infiltration into adipose tissue and altered expression of adipocytokines. PMID: 3303787, Lands, W.E. It becomes affected by the intoxication and causes a stoppage of short-term memory, becoming long-term memory. Alcohol and Alcoholism 50(1):2429, 2015. PMID: 8232378, Rogers, C.Q. Hippocampus Emotions and memories are created in this region. Learn more about the passive diffusion of alcohol through the blood brain barrier. This is how even one binge event can lead to an untimely death. 1995). 2012; Wynne and Sarkar 2013). Alcohol can cut short its healthy growth and "re-wire" it in ways that cause physical, emotional and social harm to . Four-week ethanol intake decreases food intake and body weight but does not affect plasma leptin, corticosterone, and insulin levels in pubertal rats. The Role of The Liver ; Shaw, G.K.; and Thomson, A.D. Thyroid status in chronic alcoholics. Alcohol and Alcoholism 19(3):235242, 1984. 2006). A 2014 study looked at how stress and sex hormones affect dopamine neurotransmission during adolescence. Numerous studies in both humans and experimental animals have shown that acute and chronic alcohol exposure has a variety of effects on the GH/IGF-1 axis (figure 4). It is responsible for making hormones that affect many body functions. Anybody can develop ataxia-related problems that affecting . The hypothalamus controls body temperature, thirst, hunger and other bodily functions involved in sleep and emotional activity. 2015;5(4):22232246. The medulla is an area of the brain that regulates breathing, consciousness, body temperature, and other automatic functions. Effects of drug and alcohol abuse upon pituitary-testicular function in adolescent males. Neuron 65(6):768779, 2010. Independent effects of liver disease and chronic alcoholism on thyroid function and size: The possibility of a toxic effect of alcohol on the thyroid gland. Rachdaoui N, Sarkar DK. 3The increased TNF levels associated with decreased adiponectin also may play a role in the development of liver disease. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 562:211240, 1989. In order to affect cognitive functions such as learning and memory alcohol must first enter the brain. ; et al. Similar findings have been obtained in animal studies. Glucokinase is involved in glucose metabolism that leads to increased production of adenosine-triphosphate, a necessary step in insulin secretion by -cells. Learning and memory are crucial events during adolescence, when the brain is maturing both physically and functionally. 2004), whereas others determined a reduced basal insulin secretion rate associated with a lower fasting plasma glucagon concentration (Bonnet et al. Thyroid hormone metabolism in the rat brain in an animal model of behavioral dependence on ethanol. Brain Research 726(12):110, 1996. ; Yang, S.Q. Due to its small size alcohol in the blood can passively diffuse (through the blood brain barrier) into the brain. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 24(12):18361849, 2000. However, conflicting changes in peripheral thyroid hormones in response to alcohol exposure and withdrawal have been reported. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal government site. PMID: 10189054, De Marinis, L.; Mancini, A.; Fiumara, C.; et al. PMID: 12351938, De, A.; Boyadjieva, N.; Pastorcic, M.; and Sarkar, D. Potentiation of the mitogenic effect of estrogen on the pituitary-gland by alcohol-consumption. ; Kok, F.J.; et al. Acute exposure to alcohol activates the HPA axis, leading to a dose-related increase in circulating ACTH and glucocorticoids and inducing anxiolytic-like responses (Richardson et al. PMID: 20575772, Wang, H.J. PMID: 7738205, Kang, L.; Sebastian, B.M. The hypothalamus has many functions which include regulating appetite and thirst, regulating sexual behavior, managing emotions, releasing hormones, controlling body temperature and regulating sleep. PMID: 7984236. ; Bryant, C.A. In the testes, in contrast, LH stimulates testosterone production and release, whereas FSH controls spermatogenesis. Whether it be group counseling in a rehabilitation center or attending weekly Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) meetings, having a place to find camaraderie is crucial. ; et al. Through this transmission of neurons, our brain becomes active and can process the skills and responses required to function. PMID: 21552885, Dees, W.L., and Kozlowski, G.P. Journal of Endocrinology 63(2):50P51P, 1974. Answer: The presence of alcohol (the black blob) shifts the lipid molecules out of place and breaks up their orderly arrangement. PMID: 9521430, Myers, B.; McKlveen, J.M. PMID: 22797570, Hodge, A.M.; Dowse, G.K.; Collins, V.R. 1983). Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 245(3):895904, 1988. Like the other hormone systems discussed so far, the GH/IGF-1 axis is under the control of the hypothalamus. Peripubertal paternal EtOH exposure. Neuropeptides 32(3):211214, 1998. Hormones and Behavior 61(3):331339, 2012. AUDs often are associated with chronic systemic inflammation and high levels of circulating proinflammatory cytokines. ; Boldt, B.M. Dopamine also can block prolactin release directly at the level of lactotropes. At birth, plasma IGF-1 levels are at 50 percent of the adult levels and gradually increase throughout childhood with a spike during puberty, when IGF-1 plays a critical role in reproductive-organ maturation and long-bone growth. ; Bissette, G.; et al. Thus without a properly functioning hippocampus learning and memory become problematic. 2005). This hormone, in turn, promotes the synthesis and secretion of T4 and T3 from the follicular cells of the thyroid gland. Learnmore about the ability of alcohol to decrease neuron firing. ; et al. 2000). 2013). Alcohol is classified as a central nervous system depressant. The hypothalamus controls body temperature, thirst, hunger and other bodily functions involved in sleep and emotional activity. ):231S237S, 1998. The brain of a young child is in development until around age 25. After the amygdala sends a distress signal, the hypothalamus activates the sympathetic nervous system by sending signals through the autonomic nerves to the adrenal glands. However, more studies are needed to specify the mechanisms by which chronic alcohol affects -cell function. Hypothalamic releasing and inhibiting hormones are carried directly to the anterior pituitary gland via hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal veins. Verywell Mind's content is for informational and educational purposes only. Chronic alcohol effects on anterior pituitary and ovarian hormones in healthy women. PMID: 15161790, Bansal, P.; Wang, S.; Liu, S.; et al. ; et al. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 17:505, 1993. Stabilization of tumor necrosis factor-alpha mRNA in macrophages in response to chronic ethanol exposure. PMID: 15111562, Tomie Furuya, D.; Binsack, R.; Onishi, M.E. Thus, fetal ethanol exposure increased methylation of a regulatory element (i.e., the promoter) of the D2R gene, thereby reducing transcription. This is further demonstrated by observations that estrogen can stimulate GH secretion (Mauras et al. International Journal of Oncology 7(3):643648, 1995. Alcohol can stimulate neurons in the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus to release corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) and arginine vasopressin (AVP).