Famous Handwriting Forgery Cases, Articles E

The Ekpe Society or Mgbe society as it is also fondly called is very reputable and covers a wider range of ethnic groups such as: the Efut; the Efik; the Qua-Ejegham, and the Okonko ( the Igbo-speaking areas). Jeffreys states that a disruption among the Okobo around the town of Ekeya in the Eket district led to the founding of Obutong. [53] Aphrom was a corruption of Ephraim which was an anglicised form of the Efik name Efiom. The Ekpe is a men's society found in Abiriba, Aro-chukwu, Ohafia and many other Bende communities in Igbo land, it is a variation of the important Egbo Ejagham ( Ekoi) in the Upper Cross-River as well as the Efik Ekpe Society of Calabar. (Ed.). [45] internal dissensions and population expansion led to the movement of several families from Creek Town to Obutong, Atakpa, Nsidung and Ekoretonko. The earliest accounts are narrated in the second half of the 19th century by Explorers and missionaries. While some explorers describe the Efik as travellers who past through the Ibibio country, others assert that the Efik are of Ibibio stock. It is also used by the Igbo and Efik. . cherryblossom wrote on WARRIOR's profile. The Ogboni fraternity is said to have a strong affiliation to royalty, gerontological system of governance and the law enforcement of the community. Origin Nsibidi symbols which are indigenous to Igbo, Ibibio, Efik, Annang and Ekoi/Ejagham members of the Ekpe society. Due to the Obutong massacre of 1765 and several other incidents, the Ekpe society of Old Calabar was transformed into the Abaku cult in Cuba, the Bonk cult in Bioko and the Abakuya dance in mainland Equatorial Guinea. . The group is gaining grounds as it seems to incessantly predict the total destruction of the planet earth. [67] As of 1877, Alexander Ross reported that thirteen towns in the Cameroon region speak Efik and had an aggregate population of about 22,000. Nigeria and Cameroon (Lebialem and Manyu), Ekpe Society Resolutions from meeting held on September 16th 2011 in DC, Auto-Biography of Sisiku Emmanuel Ojong-Orock, Leader of Cameroonian Ekpe Lodge in Metropolitan DC. Internal details about the membership and brotherhood demands of this ancient group is supposedly a top secret known only to the members. Enyi laja na lasha b nyeere ha aka idi nsogbu nd baara ha. The Ekpe society requires that its initiates sponsor feasts for the town, which foster the appearance of the redistribution of wealth by providing the poor with food and drink. [67] Communities within the Calabar metropolis such as Efut, Kiong and Qua also speak and understand the Efik language. One-word searches work best.Use AND to require multiple terms: LEFT Small ukara with minute patterned design and Omu Aro symbol. Ekpe is a mysterious spirit who is supposed to live in the jungle and to preside at the ceremonies of the society. No disrespect allowed. It described the religion, social, economic and political structures of the society as progressive and dynamic. Abakua is an Afro-Cuban mens secret society related to the Ekpe. [49] Several events at Creek town later led to a wave of migration from Creek town to Duke town. [53] Some of the kings have been identified in the past by Etubom Ukorebi Ukorebi Asuquo in Aye's Efik people. One theory propounded by Okon and Nkpanam Ekereke asserts that the term "Efuk" was a word of defiance and an expression used by the Ibibio man when in a fit of rage. Members of the Ekpe society are said to act as messengers of the ancestors (ikan). These drums are a regional phenomenon; they are not identified with any particular ethnic community, nor with any specific cultural group or initiation club. The society is not a 'secret society or a cult,'3 what is secret is the representations of its emblem in material symbol - the ekpe stone and the nsibidi (sign language). [16] Baikie said Ibibio are traced to the Igbo. Department of Conflict Resolution Studies Theses and Dissertations "Hakuna Matata" (No More Worries) - Integrating Indigenous Systems of Conflict Resolution into the Formal System of Government Administration in Cameroon: Case Study of the Ekpe Society of Manyu Division Stephen O. Agbor, Nova Southeastern University Follow Date of Award 2017 These missionaries together with King Eyo Honesty II brought several changes to Old Calabar society. Objects and images in the exhibition courtesy of Dr. Eli Bentor. Members of the Ekpe society are said to act as Iwewe is a type of boiled yam mashed with a small amount of palm oil and stirred with a spoon. Alternate titles: Egbo, Ekpo, Leopard society. Photo by Eli Bentor. Modern Efik society is a melting pot of people of diverse origin. Some of the oldest of these societies were Nyana Nyaku and Nsibidi. Formerly the society earned a bad reputation due to what the British viewed as the barbarous customs that were intermingled with its rites. In a Somali tale, the main character, Eghal Shillet, is: a braggart and coward who finds every possible excuse to avoid going into battle. The society combines a kind of freemasonry with political and law enforcing aims. The Ogboni is a fraternity indigenous to Nigeria, Benin and Togo. [9][38] The Adiabo group is believed to have left to their present location after the Mbiabo exodus. Nair dates the arrival of the Efik towards the end of the seventeenth century or the beginning of the eighteenth century. Ekpe, also known as Mgbe/Egbo (Ekoi language: leopard; derived from the Ibibio term for the same), is a West African secret society in Nigeria and Cameroon flourishing chiefly among the Efiks. The cloth is then dipped in indigo dye and hung to dry. Known generally as Ekpe, Egbo, Ngbe, or Ugbe among the multi-lingual groups in the region, these closed groups all used the leopard as a symbol of masculine prowess in war and political authority in their various communities. [12], The Efik were noted for their involvement in the slave trade were they acted as slave traders and middlemen between the inland slave traders and the Europeans. Aye dates the arrival of the Efik in Creek Town to the fourteenth century. The missionaries who arrived in 1846 contributed to the changes in women's attire in Efik society. She said as a member of the Ekpe Society of the Efiks, she participates in the Ekpe activities. At Creek town, the Efik ruler was Efiom Ekpo Efiom Ekpo who had a number of children including Nsa Efiom, Edem Efiom, Okoho Efiom and Odo Efiom. While their political authority is largely diminished today, Ekpe membership is still prestigious and the society continues to be a unifying force among the Ejagham, Igbo, Efik, Ibibio, and other cultural groups in the Cross River region. The Internet has shone light on manysecret societies, rendering them not so secret. On this Wikipedia the language links are at the top of the page across from the article title. With the inception of the transatlantic slave trade, a number of foreign clothes were introduced into Efik society. The Neegee is a cannibalistic group that feeds on human flesh to satisfy their God, and to gain power from that God. [82] The Portuguese are said to have arrived in masted ships. LEFT Ezillo man drawing a grid pattern to be filled with nsibidi designs, Ezillo, southeastern Nigeria. During weddings, the bride wears at least two different nyny. [68] The society is believed to have been introduced in Calabar from Usahadet. What role does religion play in society today? Probably about 8000 BC one group reached Nigeria by an overland route and settled at Ibom (Arochuku) there they erected the famous shrine now known as the Long Juju of Arochuku. of Old Calabar by the Ekpe secret society, which was controlled by the towns merchant houses. The designs are part of a dynamic language known as nsibidi, which uses image and gestural performance to communicate knowledge guarded by society members. In addition to ritual propitiation of forest spirits to ensure the well-being of the community, this graded secret male society made and enforced laws by fines, capital punishment, or boycotts; judged cases; maintained internal peace; and served as the executive. [72] Iwewe is also regarded as a sacrificial meal often prepared for the Efik deities. Okoho Efiom bore the twins at Nsutana and raised them up for years. Right now, Ekpe . cherryblossom wrote on watzinaname's profile. They give me thesum of $1,200,000 and many thing. [22] This is further proven by Talbot who proves that other ethnicities appended the name "Eburutu" or "Oburutu" to their ethnic names. Now we can't sell slaves again we must have too much man for country; and want something for make work and trade, and if we could get seed for cotton and coffee we could make trade. The masquerade tradition itself is most popular in Calabar and the Oron nation of Udung-Ukko, Mbo, Urue-Offong Oruko, Okobo, as well as the Eket and Uruan local government areas in Akwa Ibom state, Nigeria, and even western Cameroon. [36] According to Aye, "Ikpa Ene could not carry the bulk of Iboku population, Ndodoghi had to accommodate what spilt over, and the two settlements, still under one rule, were separated by the left branch of the river which became their "inland sea". [33][35] The Efik came to her defence and the dispute escalataed[34] Legend has it that this was the last straw that led to the Uruan-Efik war (known in Efik as Ek Abasi-Anwan) which led to the exit of the Efik from the Uruan country. The Efik are an ethnic group located primarily in southern Nigeria, and western Cameroon. Eli Bentor, Professor of Art History at Appalachian State University, Boone, North Carolina, speaks about the history of ukara cloth and moderates a discussi. [38] The Efik bard Adiaha Etim Anua recites in her 1910 ballad that "Mkpana Ndodoghi Edik. At Old Calabar, traders had slowly started transitioning completely into the lucrative palm oil trade. [19] Oku attests that it was the attack on the Efik that made them decide to leave Ikpa Ene as they realised they were still too close to their enemies. They use a variety of masks to execute social control. The Ekpe society, the regulatory society in Manyu Division also fixed a heavy fine on any defaulter. Ikpaya is now worn by an Obong-elect during the traditional coronation ceremony. [69] The society is divided into five main grades such as Nkanda, Oku akama, Nyamkpe, Okpoho and Ebonko. [52] The Captains wrote the acting consul who was stationed at Fernando Po. [74][75] Ed Keazor Follow Barrister-at-Law Advertisement Advertisement Recommended [77] The fibre of the leaf-stalk of a palm was made into a thread and woven to make clothes and bags. One theory asserts that Ukpong Atai Atai Ema Atai, Adim Atai Atai Ema Atai and other co-founders founded Obutong after one of Eyo Ema's people was killed during a wrestling match with Ukpong Atai at Creek town. [26] Essien points out that Atakpor Uruan Inyang is one of the Efik deities and asserts that among the Uruan exists the saying "Ke Ndem Efik Iboku, Atakpor ke Ekuk", which can be interpreted to mean "Where there is the Efik deity, there is also Atakpor Uruan to share with it. [5] The Efik refer to themselves as Efik Eburutu, Ifa Ibom, Eburutu and Iboku. [9] The largest group moved to Creek town from Ndodoghi led by the priest-king Eyo Ema Atai.[38]. Adire Adire means 'tie and dye' in Yoruba. Laws were passed to halt several practices regarded as unchristian. In the culture we have discussed, the term dalilu refers to: an individual's personal power, knowledge, or ability, inborn but enhanced and developed through training and experience. Historians and archaeologists have worked to piece together the human story from prehistory up to today. Efik traders could speak, write and read the English language. [52] A number of people were hanged, shot and buried with the late chief according to the custom. a king whose attempts to have a special son lead him to make bargains with one Islamic missionary and two noble travelers. LEFT Ekpe cage during Ikot Ekpe ritual in 2009. [76], Prior to the introduction of European-styled clothing, the Efik wore loin clothes made of Raffia (Efik: Ndam). [12] Due to the support of the missionaries, the Efik language became the language of religion. Ekpe members request nsibidi designs of personal or communal significance. ukara: Ritual Cloth of the Ekpe Society features the ukara cloth, a composite signifier of authority, prestige, sacrality, difference, and social mobility in the Ekpe secret society in the Cross river basin encompassing southeastern Nigeria and parts of Cameroon. A delegation of kp 'leopard' society initiates, as well as family members, traveled from Mamfe, Manyu Division of southwest Cameroon, to Yaound, the Cameroon capital to honor and reclaim the body of their leader and father, who had recently transited to the ancestors. After the decline of the slave trade, the Efik transitioned into the business of exporting palm oil from the Cross river. It is also found among a number of other ethnic groups, including the Bahumono of the Cross River State, the Ibibio, the Uruan and the Oron of Akwa Ibom State, Arochukwu and some other parts of Abia State, as well as in the diaspora, such as in Cuba and Brazil. The dress is often worn with ornaments such as necklaces and earrings made of coral beads. The Ekpe society may be regarded as one of the most important institutions among the Efik people. [37] The Uruan invasion at Ikpa Ene is believed to be the origin of the Efik saying, "Ama okut Ibibio, ku n enye ika, Idem amasat Ibibio eyewot owo"(English: When you see Ibibio do not give him fire(to warm himself), when he is dry he will kill you). The Ekpe Society is a religious and cultural institution among the Efik people, it can also be found among the Annang and the Ibibios. Free masons were originally an ancient Egyptian fraternity of builders, with Imhotep, as their founder and chief sculptor. As Sidney Kasfir has pointed to (in reference to the Ekpe society in southeastern Nigeria and adjoining Cameroon), material, performative, and ritual structures in masking are not fused together but can be used to different ends and can travel different paths ( Kasfir 2019: 15). [73] The Efik native cow (English: Ena Efk) was regarded with some amount of reverence and was mainly killed on rare occasions such as the festival for the installation of a new priest king. Papers documenting the research materials and scholarly work of Dr. Ivor L. Miller in cultural studies of the African Diaspora. (1985). Cameroon's multilingual Cross River basin. Osirica brotherhood is the root of all the mason societies, dating back around 2300 B.C. [23][24], The Oriental original is most popular among indigenous Efik historians such as E.U. [43] Stephen D. Behrendt and Eric J. Graham revealed in a 2003 publication that by the time the first documented European sailing vessel arrived in 1625, the Efik had already settled at Creek Town and Old Town. [9] The Efik have also been referred to as "Calabar people" in historical literature. Determine the meaning of the italicized word in each sentence by examining the context. The Osirica is a black Egyptian masonic order that existed in ancient Egypt. Powered by, Ukara cloth detail, Etara community, Cross River State, Nigeria, Cross River Cultural Heritage: reports from home and from the African Diaspora, Introduction: Spirit Dancers, Water Deities & Mystics in the Cross River Basin and in Cuba, Upcoming film project: Seven year kp ritual cycle, Ntufam Bob Oku literature, music and drawings, Calabar Mgb International Journal / Revista Internacional, Calabar-Cuba Radio with Ene Ita and Ivor Miller, Manyu kp Funeral Rites in Yaounde, 2019, Ivor Miller research archive at Amherst College, Manyu kp procession in Yaound, March 29, 2019, Poster for funeral of Seseku Stephen Tataw (1948-2019), Tortoise shell instrument is played in the funerary procession, kp mask purifies the hearse before the procession begins, Funerary shrine representing the sacred forest of kp, kp members surround the shrine for the final rites. La communaut cubaine Abakudescendante des communauts fik Ekp et Ejagham gb du Sud Est du Nigria et du Sud Ouest du Camerouna t fonde la Havane dans les annes 1830 par des leaders capturs des villages de Cross River. An entire topic will be dedicated to discussing the Ekpe society and its legacy in the near future. Meat and fish are the major sources of protein in Efik cuisines. We are about loving, encouraging, embracing, teaching, and building with black people. The Efik acted as the middlemen between the European vessels and the inland slave traders. The symbols are arranged in a grid, giving the cloths an orderly, symmetrical quality that is often reinforced by repeated patterns. They migrated from Bateka and settled in their current location in flight. After the tapping process, the wine is left to ferment for five hours. According to Historians, this technique of indigo-dyeing was developed in the Dogon kingdom in Mali (West Africa) dating back to the 11th century. Only males can join, boys being initiated about the age of puberty. Covering, concealing, and protecting their bodies, it functions as a physical metaphor for the ideological secrecy that the Ekpe society carefully constructs and guards. expectations of the members to prioritize the group over their own families. [15] Ekereke and Ekereke further assert that the word was later changed to "Efik". I'm still struggling to understand her choice. They are well respected agents of wealth distribution in the community. Cow meat was also consumed but the Efik native cow was rarely eaten or milked by the Efik. The three most popular theories include an Igbo origin, Ibibio origin and Palestinian origin. Long time we no look Man-of-War as Blount promise one Frenchman come make plenty palaver for slave when we can't get them. These they handcuffed, brought down to the canoes, and so proceeded up the river, till they got to the amount of 45, with whom they returned to New town, where sending to the captains of the shipping, they divided them among the ships.[56]. [14], The name "Efik" translates to "Oppressors" and is derived from the Efik-Ibibio verb root "Fik" (English: Oppress). One of Thompson's pupils, Ivor Miller, has now produced a noteworthy study, concentrating specifically on one particular secret society, Ekpe, of the Cross River region of southeastern Nigeria and southwestern Cameroon; its transfiguration on Cuban soil into the Abakua society; and the ensuing effect of Abakua in shaping all aspects of the . Ekpe Society Emblem, Ejaham, Cameroon Dog Fetish, Vili, Congo Mlbuya (sickness) mask, Pende, Zaire Nimba Mask, Baga, Guinea Picasso Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, 1907 Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, 1907 (detail) Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, 1907 (detail) Bust of a Woman, 1931 Tte de taureau (Bull's Head), 1942 La chvre (The goat) 1950 Other references an extraordinarily powerful woman, who can change herself into a buffalo, the proud oldest daughter of a king, who insists on being respected, enraged by her brother's refusal to give her the inheritance she feels she is owed, guilt-ridden for having killed many of her brother's people, and for having pushed her youngest sister too hard and too Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Calabar. The Ekpe society most likely originated among the Efik people of southern Nigeria and from there spread across other tribes and language groups in Southern Nigeria. Among the earliest proponents of the Ibibio origin theory are Consul Hutchinson who stated, "The present inhabitants of Duke town, Old town and Creek town are descendants of the Egbo shary or Ibibio tribe up the Cross River. He views the Cuban initiation system known as Abaku, which was based on kp society, as a collective way for African descendants to maintain their historical memory. [61] Due to the fall in global demand for slaves and several other factors, the kings and chiefs of Old Calabar wrote to the British requesting that they send teachers and missionaries to Old Calabar to establish industries and introduce the religion of the white man to them. Photo by Eli Bentor. The Leopard Society was allegedly a cannibalistic society in the early-to-mid 2oth century in Sierra Leone, Libera and Cte dIvoire. Only males can join, boys being initiated about the age of puberty. These secret societies were used to uphold the legal decisions of the Council of Elders or of the community as a whole, they also ensured conformity in certain rituals and in social behaviour and undertook certain public works for the community (n.d.). This village was originally named Ta Set Maat. Photo by Eli Bentor. [46] On their exit from Obutong, they are believed to have sought the permission of Oku Atai to use the Ntinya. Hope Waddell, Foreign commerce soon brought Calabar affairs into such a state, that the want of a bond of union among the different families, and of a supreme authority to enforce peace and order between equals and rivals, became apparent; and the Egbo institution was adopted. Ekpe translates to Leopard in the Efik language and is believed to be a spirit that resides in the forest. NSUWorks - Nova Southeastern University Institutional Repository The first letter of the word is correctly written as "" and denotes plurality. [77] Women wore a number of brass rings on their legs and arms. Other trading items sold by the Efik included rubber, ivory, barwood and redwood. But, Ekpe in the course of the colonial period underwent a wide range of fundamental changes in their structure, roles, status . authority as head of the Ekpe (Egbo), or Leopard, society. These artists sew the white cloths with raffia thread so that parts of the ukara (in a pattern of nsibidi symbols) will not be exposed during the dyeing process. identity. I am a young researcher who have a great love for forest conservation, community . In the Song of Ocol, Lawino's husband gives his side, arguing that: Ocol throws Lawino out of his house because: Ocol says that "__________________________ are chains around the neck, chains of slavery". As the slave trade was declining due to the strong global campaign against it, the effects on slave trading ports along the African coast was greatly experienced. You been do very proper for we, and now we want to keep proper mouth. [17] Some oral accounts by early Efik men also support the Igbo origin of the Efik. The Sunjata Epic is usually understood to tell the story of: the rise and fall of the seven Nubian (Kushite) kings. "[20] In such cases, the Ekpe Society is seen as the . The most popular migration account within the Nigerian space asserts that the Efik people lived at Ibom in the present-day Arochukwu and migrated from Ibom to Uruan. Law and order in Efik society was maintained via a number of secret societies. Select search scope, currently: catalog all catalog, articles, website, & more in one search; catalog books, media & more in the Stanford Libraries' collections; articles+ journal articles & other e-resources There are two distinct but related societies. Hope Waddell, Samuel Edgerley and four others. The area from which the Sunjata Epic comes was historically: the geographical location of the great medieval African kingdoms - Ghana, Mali, and Songhai. Additional Touches Several periods have been estimated by foreign scholars and indigenous historians. [47] On the founding of Obutong, Colonial anthropologist M.D.W. In the culture we have discussed, the term badenya refers to: the relationship between the mother and child, and full siblings - implying closeness, trust, cooperation, unselfishness, and acceptance of rules. In this light, the Cameroon National Council of Traditional Rulers would be a welcomed . kp had four major roles in pre-colonial life. Opinions expressed belong solely to the author and do not represent the views of other Members, Management, or the Community at large. [19], The Ibibio origin of the Efik is one of the most popular among scholars. jamba juice turmeric smoothie recipe; sainsbury's locksbottom parking charges; ekpe society cameroon; June 11, 2022; small mortuary obituaries mobile, alabama . Photo by Jordan Fenton. Prior to the arrival of the missionaries in 1846, many Efik traders were fluent in English and a number of African and European languages. [78] Raffia palm clothing (Efik: f Ndam) could also be exported from other communities especially when a community made the best raffia clothing. I am manyang Mathilda Nkwo of Akiriba village , upperbanyang and I am and still is oneof the oldest living practing manyangero in Manyu. There are different narratives on the arrival of the Efik at Creek Town. The cloth is made of plain cotton but transformed into a ritual object when nsibidi symbols are inscribed onto it through indigo dyeing. [32] The Efik having pity on these men gave them food and showed them hospitality. In its vastness, the Ekpe is a well structured society with semi-caste characteristics, in that, there are categories and titles which one may qualify to be initiated into, while others are strictly reserved for persons of certain status and backgrounds. Efik names were often anglicised to gain the trust of European traders. This is UKARA cloth used by the Ekpe society in a handful of places in Nigeria, Cameroon The symbols are nisbidi You even scanned the raffia marks left from resist dyeing I hope you won't sue the owners in future! [26][28] This theory was narrated at the Hart's enquiry by Etubom Ededem Ekpenyong Oku but has been criticised by Uruan writers such as Dominic Essien. Explain. The Ekpe Society. . One theory states that the Efik and Uruan had separate religious customs and the Efik refused to worship the Uruan deity Atakpor Uruan Inyang. Sunjata's victory against Sumaworo comes in part because: Sumaworo loses the support of his nephew, Fakoli. Prior to the introduction of industrialised cubic-shaped seasonings such as maggi and know, Crayfish was used to make meals more spicy. the Ekpe society. [57] The diary of Antera Duke, an Efik, is the only surviving record from an African slave-trading house. [69] On the appending of the Ekpe institution to its list of secret societies, the Ekpe society was reformed and adapted to suit the needs of the Efik people. The Efik speak the Efik language which is a member of the Benue -Congo subfamily of the Niger - Congo language group. It became a truly multi-group society, finding its' way to almost all groups in the region and gaining dominance in . According to E.U. And there are definitely more than 10 Ekpe members still around today. Some of the musical instruments that are important in the culture we have discussed are: the bala (balaphon), a kind of xylophone, and the kora, a gourd harp. During the colonial era, The Efik language was the only language taught in schools in many parts of the present-day Cross River and Akwa Ibom state. In the culture we have discussed, the term fadenya refers to: the relationship between father and child, and half siblings - requiring self-assertion, independence, innovation, and competition. Black Spirituality / Religion - General Discussion, http://odinanilawsofnature.wordpress.com/2010/11/10/finding-god-in-nature/, http://tourismafricana.com/origin-history-ekpe-soceity.html. Members of the Ekpe society are said to act as messengers of the [44] The indigenous drums of the Cross River region of southeastern Nigeria and southwestern Cameroon are distinctive for their "wedge and ring" method of tightening the skin. [37] A captured invader confessed that they were set to retrieve royal emblems which they believed the Efik had taken with them when they left Uruan. Sisiku Ojong-Orock was born on Saturday October 2nd, 1948 in Ogomoko Village,Eyumojock Sub-Division, Manyu Division in the Republic of Cameroon, West Africa. Ekpe masquerade mimic the form of a lion or leopard moves. [71] Meals such as Iwewe were fed to children and old people with no teeth or fragile teeth. [58] Antera Duke also known as Ntiero Edem Efiom was an Efik trader whose diary reveals several daily activities in Old Calabar between 1785 and 1788. What I want for dollar side is a fine coat and sword all same I tell you and the rest in copper rods. [51] When the twins were older, they left for the opposite end of the island to Duke town. James Beale Horton made a similar assertion in 1868 where he asserted that all the communities of the Niger-delta are traced to the Igbo. Ekpe Efik was used as a government instrument in Bakassi in exercising authority for more than 200 years ago (E.O.Efiong-Fuller, 1996).